Nuclear physicist and MIT Professor Emeritus Lee Grodzins passed away on March 6 at his residence in the Maplewood Senior Living Facility in Weston, Massachusetts. He was 98 years old.

Grodzins was a trailblazer in the field of nuclear physics research. He was perhaps most recognized for the profoundly impactful experiment that determined the helicity of the neutrino, which contributed significantly to the comprehension of what is termed the weak interaction. Additionally, he founded Niton Corp. and the nonprofit Cornerstones of Science, and he co-founded the Union of Concerned Scientists.

He retired in 1999 after dedicating 40 years to the MIT physics faculty. While part of the Laboratory for Nuclear Science (LNS), he launched the relativistic heavy-ion physics initiative. He authored more than 170 scientific papers and possessed 64 U.S. patents.

“Lee was an exceptionally skilled experimental physicist, particularly when it came to constructing devices,” shares Heavy Ion Group and Francis L. Friedman Professor Emeritus Wit Busza PhD ’64. “His passion for physics extended into his dedication to teaching physics within our department.”

Hardworking offspring of immigrants

Grodzins was born on July 10, 1926, in Lowell, Massachusetts, the middle child of Eastern European Jewish immigrants David and Taube Grodzins. He was raised in Manchester, New Hampshire. His two sisters were Ethel Grodzins Romm, a journalist, author, and entrepreneur who later managed his company, Niton Corp.; and Anne Lipow, who pursued a career as a librarian and library science authority.

His father, who operated a gas station and a used-tire shop, passed away when Lee was 15 years old. To assist with family finances, Lee sold newspapers, a venture he expanded to become the second-largest newspaper distributor in Manchester.

At 17, Grodzins enrolled at the University of New Hampshire, graduating in under three years with a degree in mechanical engineering. However, he chose to pursue a career in physics after finding disagreement with a textbook that contained the word “never.”

“I was proficient in mathematics and was uncertain about my future,” Grodzins mentioned in a 1958 New York Daily News article. “It wasn’t until my final year that I unexpectedly realized I desired to be a physicist. I was reading a physics textbook one day when suddenly this sentence struck me: ‘We will never be able to see the atom.’ I thought to myself that was as foolish a statement as I’d ever encountered. What did he mean ‘never!’ I became so incensed that I began consuming the works of other authors to see what they proposed, and all at once, I found myself immersed in modern physics.”

He composed his senior thesis on “Atomic Theory.”

After graduation in 1946, he approached potential employers by proclaiming, “I hold a degree in mechanical engineering, but I do not wish to be one. I aim to be a physicist, and I am willing to take any position in that area for whatever compensation you can provide.”

He accepted a position at General Electric’s Research Laboratory in Schenectady, New York, where he engaged in core nuclear research by constructing cosmic ray detectors, while also pursuing his master’s degree at Union College. “I had a blast,” he recalled. “I spent 12 hours a day in the lab. They had to urge me to leave at night.”

Brookhaven

After receiving his PhD from Purdue University in 1954, he spent a year as a lecturer there before becoming a researcher at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) within Maurice Goldhaber’s nuclear physics group, examining the properties of atomic nuclei.

In 1957, he, alongside Goldhaber and Andy Sunyar, employed a straightforward tabletop experiment to ascertain the helicity of the neutrino. Helicity describes the correlation between a particle’s intrinsic spin vector and its directional motion.

This research provided fresh backing for the concept that the principle of conservation of parity—which had been regarded for 30 years as a fundamental law of nature prior to being discredited the previous year, culminating in the 1957 Nobel Prize in Physics—was not as inflexible as the scientists believed, and did not apply universally to the behavior of certain subatomic particles.

The experiment took approximately 10 days to finish, followed by a month of examinations and verifications. They submitted a letter regarding “Helicity of Neutrinos” to Physical Review on December 11, 1957, and a week later, Goldhaber informed an audience at Stanford University that the neutrino is left-handed, indicating that the weak interaction was likely one singular force. This research proved vital for our comprehension of the weak interaction, the force responsible for governing nuclear beta decay.

“It was a genuine revolution in our grasp of physics,” states Grodzins’ former postdoctoral fellow and longtime associate Stephen Steadman. The breakthrough was celebrated in 2008, with a conference at BNL titled “Neutrino Helicity at 50.”

Steadman also recounts Grodzins’ tale about one evening at Brookhaven, where he was involved in an experiment featuring a radioactive source enclosed in a chamber. Lee realized that a vacuum pump was malfunctioning, so he tinkered with it for a while before returning home. Later that night, he received a call from the laboratory. “They said, ‘Please don’t go anywhere!’” Steadman remembers. It turned out the radiation source in the lab had exploded, and the pump had flooded the laboratory with radiation. “They managed to trace his radioactive footprints from the lab to his residence,” Steadman notes. “He just shrugged it off.”

The MIT years

Grodzins became part of the MIT faculty in 1959, where he instructed physics for four decades. He took over Robley Evans’ Radiation Laboratory, which employed radioactive sources to investigate nucleus properties, and led the Relativistic Heavy Ion Group, affiliated with the LNS.

In 1972, he initiated a program at BNL utilizing the then-novel Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator to explore interactions of heavy ions with nuclei. “As the BNL tandem was being commissioned, we began a program alongside Doug Cline at the University of Rochester to investigate Coulomb-nuclear interference,” shares Steadman, a senior research scientist at LNS. “The experimental outcomes were significant yet somewhat contentious at the moment. We clearly observed the interference effect.” This experimental work was published in Physical Review Letters.

Grodzins’ group sought super-heavy elements using the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Super-Hilac, studied heavy-ion fission and various heavy-ion reactions, and examined heavy-ion transfer reactions. This latter research demonstrated with great precision the underlying statistical behavior of nucleon transfer between the heavy-ion projectile and target, employing a theoretical statistical model of Surprisal Analysis developed by Rafi Levine and his graduate student. Steadman recalls, “These results were remarkable in their accuracy and were initially controversial in their interpretation.”

In 1985, he executed the first computer axial tomographic experiment using synchrotron radiation, and in 1987, his group participated in the initial run of Experiment 802, a collaborative investigation involving about 50 scientists worldwide who studied relativistic heavy ion collisions at Brookhaven. MIT’s responsibility included constructing the drift chambers and designing the bending magnet for the experiment.

“He made substantial contributions to the preliminary design and construction phases, where his extensive knowledge and connections with small area companies with unique skills were invaluable,” states George Stephens, a senior lecturer in physics and senior research scientist.

at MIT.

Professor emeritus of physics Rainer Weiss ’55, PhD ’62 reminisces about his involvement in a Mossbauer experiment aimed at determining whether photons altered their frequency while traversing bright areas. “It was a theory proposed by some to clarify the ‘apparent’ red shift with distance in our universe,” states Weiss. “Throughout this process, we fostered a profound friendship, and naturally, became amateur cosmologists.”

“Lee was exceptional for generating innovative concepts,” Steadman mentions. “He would initiate one idea, but subsequently become sidetracked by another brilliant notion. It was crucial for the team to carry these experiments through to completion: they successfully published the papers.”

MIT mentor

Prior to his retirement in 1999, Lee oversaw 21 doctoral theses and was an advocate for women graduate scholars in physics. He also mentored the undergraduate thesis of Sidney Altman, who later received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry decades after. For many years, he contributed to teaching the Junior Lab, a requirement for all undergraduate physics majors. Notably, he received his favorite student evaluation for a different course, described as providing a “superficial overview” of nuclear physics. The comment noted: “This physics course was not superficial enough for my liking.”

“He truly enjoyed collaborating with students,” remarks Steadman. “They could always drop by his office at any time. He was an extremely encouraging mentor.”

“He was a fantastic mentor, warm-hearted and supportive of all of us,” concurs Karl van Bibber ’72, PhD ’76, presently at the University of California at Berkeley. He remembers submitting his first paper to Grodzins for feedback. “I sat at my desk expecting praise. Instead, he frowned, tossed the manuscript onto my desk, and rebuked, ‘Don’t even touch a pencil again until you’ve read a Hemingway novel!’ … The next draft of the paper featured an average sentence length of about six words; we submitted it, and it was swiftly accepted by Physical Review Letters.”

Van Bibber has since been teaching the “Grodzins Method” in his graduate seminars on professional development for scientists and engineers, which includes sharing a few collections of Hemingway’s short stories. “I presented a copy of one of the well-worn anthologies to Lee at his 90th birthday lecture, which brought him to tears of laughter.”

Early in George Stephans’ career as a research scientist at MIT, he collaborated with Grodzins’ newly established Relativistic Heavy Ion Group. “Regardless of his extensive interests, he attentively monitored our activities and was always remarkably supportive, especially toward students. He was an encouraging and insightful mentor to me, in addition to being a joy to collaborate with. He actively advocated for my promotion to principal research scientist at a relatively early stage, in recognition of my contributions.”

“He always seemed to possess a wealth of knowledge about everything, but never behaved in a patronizing manner,” notes Stephans. “He appeared happiest when he was deeply immersed in examining the intricate details of the unique and unconventional work that one of these companies was conducting for us.”

Al Lazzarini ’74, PhD ’78 recalls Grodzins’ explorations utilizing proton-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) as a precise technique for measuring trace elemental quantities. “Lee was an outstanding physicist,” states Lazzarini. “He delivered a captivating seminar on a study he conducted concerning a lock of Napoleon’s hair, searching for signs of arsenic poisoning.”

Robert Ledoux ’78, PhD ’81, a former physics professor at MIT who now serves as program director of the U.S. Advanced Research Projects Agency under the Department of Energy, worked alongside Grodzins both as a student and as a colleague. “He was the epitome of a ‘nuclear physicist’s physicist’—a remarkable experimentalist who genuinely relished creating and conducting experiments in various domains of nuclear physics. His enthusiasm for discovery was only equaled by his magnanimity in sharing knowledge.”

The funding dilemma for research that emerged in 1969 prompted Grodzins to worry that his graduate students might struggle to find career opportunities in their field. He helped establish the Economic Concerns Committee of the American Physical Society, for which he authored a significant report on the “Manpower Crisis in Physics” (1971), presenting his findings at the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and at the Karlsruhe National Lab in Germany.

Grodzins was instrumental in facilitating the arrival of the first Chinese graduate students at MIT in the 1970s and 1980s.

Among the students he welcomed was Huan Huang PhD ’90. “I will always be thankful to him for altering the course of my life,” states Huang, currently at the University of California at Los Angeles. “His steadfast encouragement and ‘go for it’ mindset inspired us to delve into physics at the onset of a novel research area focusing on high energy heavy ion collisions during the 1980s. I have consistently strived to be a ‘nice professor’ similar to Lee throughout my professional journey.”

Even after departing MIT, Grodzins remained accessible to his former students. “Many express how significantly my lifestyle has impacted them, which brings me satisfaction,” Huang shares. “They’ve played a pivotal role in my life. My story would be severely incomplete without them.”

Niton Corp. and post-MIT career

Grodzins had a fondness for what he termed “tabletop experiments,” akin to the one utilized in his 1957 neutrino experiment, which involved a small group constructing a device that could be positioned on a tabletop. “He did not relish participating in large collaborations, which nuclear physics embraced,” remarks Steadman. “I believe that’s why he ultimately departed from MIT.”

In the 1980s, he embarked on what became a new venture in detection technology. In 1987, after creating a scanning proton-induced X-ray microspectrometer to measure elemental concentrations in the air, he founded Niton Corp., which developed, manufactured, and marketed testing kits and instruments designed to measure radon gas in buildings, detect lead-based paint, and other non-invasive testing applications. (“Niton” is an outdated term for radon.)

“During that time, there was significant concern regarding radon in New England, and he believed he could devise a radon detector that was both affordable and easy to operate,” shares Steadman. “His radon detector evolved into a substantial business.”

He subsequently created devices for locating explosives, drugs, and other illegal items within luggage and cargo containers. Handheld devices employed X-ray fluorescence to assess the composition of metal alloys and identify various materials. The handheld XL Spectrum Analyzer was capable of detecting buried and surface lead on painted surfaces to safeguard children residing in older homes. Three Niton X-ray fluorescence analyzers received R&D 100 awards.

“Lee was exceptionally skilled technically,” Steadman states.

In 1999, Grodzins retired from MIT and dedicated his efforts to industry, including managing the R&D division at Niton.

His sister Ethel Grodzins Romm served as the president and CEO of Niton, later succeeded by his son Hal. A considerable portion of Niton’s employees were graduates of MIT. In 2005, he and his family sold Niton to Thermo Fisher Scientific, where Lee continued as a principal scientist until 2010.

In the 1990s, he held the position of vice president at American Science and Engineering, and between the ages of 70 and 90, he was granted three patents annually.

“Curiosity and inventiveness do not cease at a specific age,” Grodzins stated to UNH Today. “You make a choice about what you know, and you resist altering that perspective. But thinking outside the box genuinely entails thinking beyond your own confines.”

“I miss his zeal,” reflects Steadman. “I encountered him a couple of years ago, and he was still very active, always prepared to initiate a new project, and he consistently endeavored to involve you in those endeavors.”efforts.”

An improved world

During the 1950s, Grodzins and other Brookhaven researchers participated in the American delegation at the Second United Nations International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy held in Geneva.

Early in his career, he collaborated with several alumni of the Manhattan Project at MIT who were concerned about the repercussions of nuclear weapons. In the tumultuous year of 1969, amidst the Vietnam War, Grodzins co-founded the Union of Concerned Scientists, advocating for scientific investigations to shift focus away from military applications towards addressing urgent environmental and societal issues. He held the position of chair in 1970 and 1972. He also led committees for the American Physical Society and the National Research Council.

As vice president for advanced products at American Science and Engineering, a manufacturer of homeland security devices, he became an advisor on airport safety, particularly in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks. Serving as an expert witness, he provided testimony in the prominent trial to ascertain whether Pan Am bore responsibility for the bombing of Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, and participated in a weapons inspection mission on the Black Sea. Additionally, he frequently served as an expert witness in patent litigation.

In 1999, Grodzins established the nonprofit organization Cornerstones in Science, a public library initiative aimed at enhancing public involvement with science. Initially based at the Curtis Memorial Library in Brunswick, Maine, Cornerstones now collaborates with libraries across Maine, Arizona, Texas, Massachusetts, North Carolina, and California. Among their efforts was a project that has facilitated the provision of telescopes to libraries and astronomy clubs nationwide.

“He possessed a profound desire to contribute positively to humanity,” says Steadman.

Honors

Grodzins published over 170 technical articles and holds more than 60 U.S. patents. His extensive recognition included being designated a Guggenheim Fellow in 1964 and 1971, along with being a senior von Humboldt fellow in 1980. He was a distinguished fellow of both the American Physical Society and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, receiving an honorary doctor of science degree from Purdue University in 1998.

In 2021, the Denver X-Ray Conference awarded Grodzins the Birks Award in X-Florescence Spectrometry, recognizing his introduction of “a portable XRF unit that broadened applications to in-field studies including environmental research, archaeological exploration, mining, and more.”

Life outside work

One evening in 1955, shortly after commencing his position at Brookhaven, Grodzins opted to stroll and discover the BNL campus. He stumbled upon a single building with lights on and open for entry, so he ventured inside. Within, a group was rehearsing for a play. He was instantly captivated by one of the performers, Lulu Anderson, a young biologist. “I joined the acting company, and a year-and-a-half later, Lulu and I were wed,” Grodzins recalled. They enjoyed a joyful marriage for 62 years until Lulu’s passing in 2019.

The couple raised two sons, Dean, now residing in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Hal Grodzins, who lives in Maitland, Florida. Lee and Lulu were proud owners of several cherished huskies, most named after physicists.

After residing in Arlington, Massachusetts, the Grodzins family relocated to Lexington, Massachusetts, in 1972, and acquired a second home a few years later in Brunswick, Maine. From around 1990 onward, Lee and Lulu dedicated every weekend, throughout the year, to Brunswick. In both communities, they fervently supported their local libraries, museums, theaters, symphonies, botanical gardens, and public radio and television stations.

Grodzins brought his family to conferences, fellowships, and various engagements. They all resided in Denmark for two sabbaticals, during 1964-65 and 1971-72, while Lee was affiliated with the Niels Bohr Institute. The family also traveled together to China for a month in 1975 and for two months in 1980. During the latter trip, they were among the first American tourists to visit Tibet since the 1940s. Lee and Lulu also journeyed across the globe, from Antarctica to the Galapagos Islands to Greece.

His residences featured basement workshops well-equipped with tools. His sons relished a playroom he constructed for them in their Arlington home. He once built his own high-fidelity record player, repaired his old Volvo with fiberglass, changed his own oil, and installed winter tires and chains by himself. He was an early adopter of personal computing.

“His endeavors in science and technology reflected a general passion for gadgets, as well as repairing and creating things,” his son, Dean, mentioned in a Facebook tribute.

Lee is survived by Dean, his spouse, Nora Nykiel Grodzins, and their daughter, Lily; along with Hal and his wife Cathy Salmons.

A tribute and celebration for Lee Grodzins is scheduled for this summer. Contributions in his memory may be directed to Cornerstones of Science.